| I.1. Modern Foreign Languages within the curriculum: | | | | Foreign Languages that could be of actual use, and |
| 1900 - 1988 | | | | that a second language should be offered in Year 8 |
| I.1.a. A curriculum? | | | | or in Year 9 to the students who would gain from it. |
| Between the1880s and 1904, many pupils had the | | | | Nevertheless, one year later another report showed |
| opportunity of learning a Modern Foreign Language. | | | | signs of very low achievement in Modern Foreign |
| The main language taught was French; however, | | | | Languages. That year, 59,860 boys sat the |
| German was also taught occasionally. This was the | | | | Certificate of Secondary Education, and 17.63% |
| case in most schools existing at the time, although | | | | gained a pass grade; 103,466 girls sat the same |
| schooling was less compulsory, with compulsory | | | | exam and 22.63% passed. The results were better |
| education targeting only a range of students from six | | | | though for the students who sat a General |
| to twelve. | | | | Certificate Ordinary Level. Among the 58,962 boys |
| In 1904, the Board of Education suppressed Modern | | | | who took the exam, 58.87% of them got an A to C |
| Foreign Languages from the curriculum. This lasted | | | | grade. As for the 88,695 girls who did the same |
| for almost 60 years. This had an impact on | | | | exam, 60.47% obtained A to C, which was the pass |
| generations of British pupils, in so far that languages | | | | grade for this specific exam. |
| did not appear to be important; and therefore, for | | | | Despite all the reports previously mentioned, the |
| years, the British have argued that they were no | | | | Consultative Document about the Curriculum for |
| good at learning them. | | | | students aged 11 to 16 delivered in 1987 |
| The 1944 Education Act was a turning point for the | | | | recommended to include a Modern Foreign Language |
| United Kingdom's educational system. It made school | | | | within the foundation subjects. This means that a |
| compulsory between the ages of 5 and 15. The | | | | language would become compulsory for all the |
| Ministry of Education, which had become the | | | | students for five years. It also implied that they |
| Department for Education and Science, introduced | | | | would have to sit a formal examination after the |
| the "tripartite system". Secondary schools were | | | | five-year course. |
| converted into 'Grammar schools' for the most able | | | | In 1988, a long awaited reform of the examination |
| students, the senior schools turned into 'Secondary | | | | system took place. In 1978, the Waddell Report |
| Modern Schools' and had the majority of the | | | | already recommended a single exam at age 16 to |
| students on their roll, and 'Secondary Technical | | | | replace the General Certificate of Education and the |
| Schools' for those with a technical/scientific aptitude | | | | Certificate of Secondary Education. |
| were created. The age at which the transition | | | | The Certificate of Secondary Education introduced in |
| between primary and secondary schools was to be | | | | 1965, which was designed for those students who |
| made became more definite in the 1980s, when the | | | | were not able to achieve the traditional O level, was |
| different age groups were divided into five Key | | | | eventually replaced by the General Certificate of |
| Stages. Students had to start secondary school at | | | | Secondary Education, with the 1988 Education |
| the end of Key Stage 2. | | | | Reform Act being published. This new exam, which |
| In 1944, the Local Education Authorities provided the | | | | was launched across the subjects, put an emphasis |
| facilities and equipment for schools. They also | | | | on assessing the four skills of listening, writing, |
| acquired the resources needed and paid teachers. | | | | reading and speaking. This was seen as one of the |
| They were to make sure that there was enough | | | | biggest achievements within the Modern Foreign |
| space to accommodate all the students between the | | | | Languages field in many years. Keith Joseph was the |
| age of 5 and 15 within the catchment area. They also | | | | then Secretary of State for Education. His decision to |
| determined the length of the school day. They had | | | | initiate a new General Certificate of Secondary |
| an overview of the curriculum, but no control as such. | | | | Education was aimed at preventing Local Education |
| Over time, the way Local Education Authorities | | | | Authorities from interfering with assessments. So far, |
| administered their area was very different and the | | | | the curriculum had been in their hands and often |
| emphasis placed on certain types of school had a | | | | fulfilled the requirements of some specific universities. |
| tremendous impact on the wider community. | | | | It did not necessarily follow a logical and progressive |
| The Secretary of State did not have the legal right | | | | content. |
| to determine the contents of the curriculum. The | | | | Testing and assessments were to become a regular |
| Department for Education and Sciences' requests, as | | | | procedure that students of future generations would |
| far as the curriculum was concerned, were extremely | | | | have to sit at the ages of 7, 11, 14 and 16. Students' |
| limited except for Religious Studies (daily worship and | | | | individual results would not be available to everybody, |
| religious education became statutory). The subjects | | | | but the school overall results would be made available. |
| taught, and the methods and contents, were left to | | | | This was the birth of the League tables, dreaded by |
| the teaching profession and head teachers. This was | | | | many British Schools. League tables are nowadays |
| the case until the 1980s, though Her Majesty's | | | | published in newspapers and analysed on television. |
| Inspectorate and the Office for Standards in | | | | This influences parents in the wishes they express |
| Education were inspecting and reporting about | | | | for their children to be enrolled in one school rather |
| schools. No major change happened until 1988. | | | | than another. |
| Therefore between 1904 and 1964, the teaching of | | | | The 1988 Education Reform Act's main innovation |
| languages as we perceive it in 2005 was very limited, | | | | was to establish for the first time a prescribed |
| in the few schools that offered this option. These | | | | national curriculum for all state schools for the |
| were mainly grammar schools or public schools. | | | | students from the age of five upwards. Within this |
| Indeed, often students were taught only Greek or | | | | curriculum, it was decided that languages would figure |
| Latin. Where Modern Foreign Languages were made | | | | as a foundation subject in secondary schools, |
| available, the main skills developed were reading and | | | | although informally many comprehensive schools, |
| writing. The emphasis was on grammar, literacy and | | | | which before this Act had the freedom to decide |
| the communicative aspects of languages were | | | | whether they wanted their students to pursue a |
| completely overlooked. The emphasis was placed on | | | | language up to the age of 16 or not, had already |
| developing intellectual skills, and the teaching methods | | | | made them statutory. |
| were the ones employed for classical languages. | | | | In 1996, the Education Act reinforced all the previous |
| Modern Foreign Languages were not seen as a | | | | Acts from the famous Butler Education act of 1944 |
| means to an end; the ability to communicate with a | | | | onwards, but in the languages field it mainly |
| native speaker of the target language seemed to be | | | | reasserted the fact that Modern Foreign Languages |
| of very little importance. The purpose of learning a | | | | was a foundation subject and that all students in |
| language was to elevate yourself to higher academic | | | | Year 10 had to take their French, German or Spanish |
| standards and to be part of an elite. | | | | GCSE. Schools had to obey the law. |
| I.1.b 1960s-1970s: ambiguous positions | | | | I.3. The Nuffield Inquiry |
| Until 1965, universities in the United Kingdom required | | | | The Nuffield Foundation is a charitable trust which |
| prospective students to have a basic knowledge of a | | | | was created in 1943 by William Morris, also known as |
| foreign language in order to process their applications. | | | | Lord Nuffield. He was the founder of Morris Motors. |
| The decision made at the Standing Conference on | | | | His original target was to "advance social well being, |
| University Entrance in 1966 ended a hundred year old | | | | particularly through research and practical experiment. |
| requirement which gave access to higher education. | | | | The Foundation aims to achieve this by supporting |
| This can be considered as undermining the status of | | | | work which will bring about improvements in society, |
| languages. Monolingualism from then on became | | | | and which is founded on careful reflection and |
| acceptable even from the people who were at the | | | | informed by objective and reliable evidence." ( |
| time believed to be the 'creme de la creme' of the | | | | The foundation's income is based on returns of |
| nation. | | | | investments, which makes it totally independent from |
| Some highly regarded universities such as Cambridge | | | | the Government. It implies that the inquiries, research |
| tried to carry on with the Modern Language | | | | and reports are objective and unprejudiced. The |
| prerequisite in order to be more selective, and to | | | | foundation provides grants for various projects and |
| have on their rolls candidates of very high academic | | | | supports some scientists and social scientists. Lately, |
| competences. However, they were prevented from | | | | they have launched programmes to develop the |
| doing so, as it was stated in the Cambridge | | | | access to justice for all; they have instigated a |
| University Reporter, issue 335/109, 17 January 1979: | | | | programme on child protection, and have invested |
| "The University concludes that no university in | | | | money to further the development of some |
| isolation could afford to impose entrance requirement | | | | Commonwealth countries, especially where education |
| designed to encourage breadth of study in the sixth | | | | and health are concerned. The foundation is doing a |
| form...they would have to be imposed by the | | | | comparative study about elderly people and the |
| Department for Education and Science". It is | | | | concerns about their financial problems in later life. |
| interesting to note that ironically the decision to | | | | They also keep what is called an open door, to fund |
| suppress the language prerequisite was made the | | | | missions that are submitted to them. Ideally, these |
| same year when the Centre for Information on | | | | innovative projects should be about one of the |
| Language Teaching was created. | | | | foundation's areas of special interest, such as learning |
| However, the suppression of a basic competence | | | | and social provision, law and society, or science and |
| requirement in languages can also be interpreted as a | | | | education. |
| way of democratising the entrance to university and | | | | The Nuffield foundation has lately worked on |
| making it accessible to more candidates. Indeed, as | | | | "Education 14-19", and how to review the current |
| languages before the 1960s were mainly taught in | | | | system in order to inform future policies. They have |
| Grammar Schools and Public Schools, which used | | | | also researched on speech and language difficulties, |
| selective entry processes and necessitated parents' | | | | to try to enhance the work currently done. |
| funding, this decision enabled students who attended | | | | Assessment is another priority area. They have |
| Secondary Modern Schools to apply for university | | | | investigated curriculum policies and practices, with a |
| course. | | | | particular attempt to see how Information and |
| The government tried to take some steps to | | | | Communication Technology is being used in schools. |
| improve the situation. A feasibility study was carried | | | | In spring 1998, the Foundation was contacted by |
| out in 1962, for an early start at learning a Modern | | | | language teachers' representatives and delegates |
| Foreign Language in primary schools. Sir Edward Boyle | | | | from the world of business, to inquire about the |
| launched a "French from 8" pilot programme, and the | | | | situation of Modern Foreign Languages in the United |
| Nuffield foundation produced the necessary teaching | | | | Kingdom. A Committee of ten people appointed by |
| material. In 1970, an interim report was written by Dr | | | | the trustees of the Foundation worked for two |
| Clare Burstall from the National Foundation for | | | | years on the following questions:o "What capability in |
| Educational Research, which reveals a consistent | | | | languages will this country need in the next twenty |
| "linear correlation" between pupils' performances and | | | | years if it is to fulfill its economic, strategic, social and |
| parental occupations. The National Foundation for | | | | cultural responsibilities and aims and the aspirations of |
| Educational Research published a final report about | | | | its citizens?o To what extent do present policies and |
| the "French from 8" programme in 1974, which | | | | arrangements meet these needs?o What strategic |
| concluded in the Government deciding to withdraw | | | | planning and initiatives will be required in the light of |
| their support in funding the scheme... | | | | the present position?" (The Nuffield Foundation, 2000: |
| I.1.c. The birth of new comprehensive schools | | | | 10). |
| In the 1960s, the educational system moved towards | | | | The Committee, headed by Sir Trevor McDonald, |
| a more child-centred system, focusing on children as | | | | published a consultative report entitled "Where are |
| individuals and on kinaesthetic teaching methods. This | | | | we going with languages?", and then many surveys |
| appears to be in direct link with the introduction of | | | | were carried out by external agencies. After two |
| comprehensive schools, a new generation of schools | | | | years of work in partnership with organisations such |
| where the eleven-plus exam had no longer to be | | | | as the Association for Language Learning, the Centre |
| taken to gain entry. | | | | for Information on Language Teaching and Research, |
| The developments that happened in the 1960s are | | | | many universities, Local Education Authorities, |
| due to many factors that were affecting British | | | | business schools and Chambers of Commerce, they |
| society. It was a time of relative prosperity. There | | | | published a final report and recommendation pamphlet |
| were no unemployment difficulties and this had a | | | | entitled "Languages: the next generation" on 10 May |
| very positive impact on the community's perception | | | | 2000. |
| and their eagerness for fast progress in many fields. | | | | This was an extremely straightforward and long |
| Local Education Authorities were encouraging | | | | awaited report, which had strong significance for a |
| innovations within schools. | | | | number of professionals both in the business sphere |
| The idea of comprehensive education, which implies | | | | and in the education field. It gained mixed critiques |
| that all students attend a common school rather than | | | | from the papers; one of the Times educational |
| having to sit the eleven-plus exam, which was a | | | | reporters reacted quite negatively and doomed some |
| selective process to determine whether the child | | | | of the recommendations as mere utopia: "However, |
| could enter a secondary modern, a grammar or a | | | | it remains to be seen whether the Nuffield report will |
| specialist school, came rather late to the United | | | | help to ease our national embarrassment. Its authors |
| Kingdom. Other European countries had already | | | | are unrealistic in asking that all university applicants sit |
| adapted their education system to the changing | | | | a foreign language competency test, but they are |
| society generated by World War II and its | | | | right to call for more language learning in junior |
| aftermath. Between 1945 and the beginning of the | | | | schools, specialist primary schools, and improved |
| 1950s, some Local Education Authorities suggested | | | | language teaching in secondaries." (TES, 10th of May |
| the creation of comprehensive schools but the | | | | 2000). This statement expresses mixed feelings |
| Government was extremely reluctant to this idea and | | | | about some aspects of the report, and is quite |
| decided to even strengthen the system in favour of | | | | opinionated as far as secondary schools are |
| Grammar Schools. | | | | concerned. |
| By the early 1960s, the Labour government changed | | | | The Nuffield Languages Inquiry's final report reached |
| its plans and became favourable to comprehensive | | | | a number of conclusions from its main findings:o |
| schools and started to suggest the abolition of the | | | | "English native speakers tend to rely on the fact that |
| eleven plus exam. As society was prosperous and | | | | their language is being spoken all over the world. |
| the middle class expanding, public opinion was | | | | However, in the current economic context, business |
| approved of a new generation of schools. The | | | | meetings can not be held relying on the benevolence |
| current system was seen as very unequal, benefiting | | | | of potential partners who accept to speak a foreign |
| boys more than girls, and the middle-class more than | | | | language to communicate.o There is a lack of |
| the working-class. | | | | proficiency in one or more languages within the |
| The 1964 Labour manifesto for the General election | | | | United Kingdom human resources. Many foreigners |
| put great emphasis on abolishing the eleven plus | | | | have the opportunity of finding employment in the |
| exam and on developing comprehensive schools; | | | | country whereas it does not seem to happen much |
| however, after winning the elections the Government | | | | the other way round.o Languages are not taught |
| did not require Local Education Authorities to go | | | | efficiently in secondary schools, and the number of |
| comprehensive. Therefore, comprehensive schools | | | | languages offered is too limited. Often, Modern |
| started to exist alongside Grammar Schools. The | | | | Foreign Languages are presented as irrelevant even |
| Government tried to further develop their action plan, | | | | within schools. The level of achievement is too low.o |
| but it never managed to pass an Act, as Labour lost | | | | The post 16 provision for languages is too specialised |
| the General Elections in 1970. | | | | and needs to broaden up; after sitting the GCSE, |
| Although the project did not completely reach its | | | | 90% of students drop the language that they had |
| initial target, many secondary schools decided to | | | | been learning.o Government initiatives are not |
| become non selective. Some of the Grammar schools | | | | consistent throughout the compulsory schooling years |
| having a direct grant from the Government went | | | | and there is no transition managed with the |
| comprehensive, as they only had one other | | | | universities.o The tuition of languages starts too late |
| alternative which was to turn into fully private | | | | in the child's development and it would be much more |
| schools. | | | | beneficial from an earlier age.o There is a crisis in the |
| In 1969, the Department for Education issued Circular | | | | numbers on rolls in Modern Foreign Languages |
| 18/69, compelling teachers of Modern Foreign | | | | departments at university.o There is a lack of |
| Languages to complete a course of professional | | | | qualified languages teachers, and the previous point |
| training to teach in maintained schools. It was seen as | | | | implies that there will not be an increase in the |
| vital to address the lack of competence in the | | | | number of new staff". |
| classroom, particularly, since the first General | | | | The Committee working on this report, among whom |
| Certificate of Education Ordinary Level in Modern | | | | Sir John Boyd, of Churchill College, Cambridge, made |
| Foreign Languages had been introduced in 1964. The | | | | proposals to alleviate the situation. Although the |
| Department for Education had also published a circular | | | | report was originally an appeal made by various non |
| the same year (2/64) stressing the importance of | | | | governmental groups, the Committee addressed |
| developing the teaching and learning of languages, | | | | directly the Government in their proposals. The profile |
| considering the economic and political context, and | | | | of Modern Foreign Languages must be raised within |
| the need to be competitive in international and | | | | British society. Speaking more than one language |
| European business. Indeed, the United Kingdom was | | | | must become a priority. In order to do so, a |
| trying to become a member of the Common Market | | | | Government representative should be appointed to |
| and efforts had to be made in all areas to try to | | | | work specifically on this issue. Languages should be |
| obtain a positive answer, which they eventually | | | | taught to pupils from the age of seven, at an age |
| gained in 1973, when Britain entered the European | | | | were there are no inhibitions and children have an |
| Economic Community. | | | | intrinsic motivation for learning. The teaching and |
| In 1977, Her Majesty's Inspectorate (HMI) published | | | | learning of Modern Foreign Languages in secondary |
| the report "11-16: the Red Book", suggesting to | | | | schools needs to be improved. Students should have |
| include a Modern Foreign Language within the core | | | | the necessary skills to learn another language later in |
| curriculum. They advised to teach a language four | | | | life. The curriculum has to be revisited, and there is a |
| periods a week in a forty-period week. The same | | | | great need for differentiation in approaches and |
| year, HMI carried out a survey, "Modern Languages in | | | | contents so that every individual student can benefit |
| Comprehensive Schools", which reached alarming | | | | from the experience of learning a language. |
| conclusions: two out of three students starting a | | | | The report also advises to abrogate the decision |
| language at the age of 11 were dropping it at the | | | | made in 1966, which revoked the need for skills in a |
| age of 14. Only one out of ten pupils reached the | | | | language to enter university. However, there should |
| General Certificate of Education Ordinary Level pass | | | | be alternative courses in languages for 16 to 19 year |
| grade after five years of studying the language. | | | | olds who do not wish to specialise in languages, but |
| The report also mentioned the lack of professional | | | | who would still like to have some level of |
| competence of teachers who did not plan their | | | | competence. Information and Communication |
| lessons adequately, the absence of schemes of | | | | Technology, which is in full development within |
| work, the fact that class objectives were not clear, | | | | schools, has to be part of the teaching of a Modern |
| and that the lessons were not challenging enough. | | | | Foreign Language, and the latter should become a |
| Although teachers were obviously partly responsible | | | | "key skill" as Numeracy, Literacy or Information and |
| for the situation, they had to face new difficulties | | | | Communication Technology are already. |
| brought in by comprehensive schools. The groups | | | | The key message of the Nuffield Inquiry Committee |
| they taught were mainly in mixed ability; and this | | | | is related to policies that the Government would have |
| learning context implied the use of differentiation by | | | | to undertake to improve standards in education. "The |
| challenging more able students and helping students | | | | national strategy for languages should provide a |
| having learning difficulties. The emphasis was no | | | | coherent and consistent path of language learning |
| longer on writing skills, as had been the case | | | | from early childhood throughout life. To lay sound |
| previously. They had to adapt their teaching | | | | foundations for this path, learning for all children |
| techniques to meet these new needs. | | | | should start in primary school and become a |
| Margaret Thatcher's first Education Act, which was | | | | sustained dimension of their entire school education |
| published the very same year when she became | | | | (...). The government should make arrangements for |
| Prime Minister, gave back the right to Local Education | | | | the development of a national framework to define |
| Authorities to select pupils for secondary school | | | | levels of language competence and provide a set of |
| entrance. She revoked the Education Act issued by | | | | robust grade descriptors for levels of attainment to |
| the Labour government in 1976. She also decided | | | | which all language qualifications should be connected." |
| that the Government should control the school | | | | (The Nuffield Foundation, 2000: 94). |
| curriculum. | | | | So, the Nuffield Inquiry final report tried to tackle the |
| I.2. Significant changes: 1985 - 1996 | | | | issues that had to be dealt with in order to meet the |
| "The irresistible rise of English as a vehicle for | | | | country's linguistic needs at the beginning of the 21st |
| international communication made it easy to argue | | | | century. In 2001, the trustees of the Foundation |
| that the educational cost of producing a low level of | | | | established the Nuffield Language Programme to |
| communicative skill was too high to be justified in a | | | | further develop the findings and more importantly the |
| curriculum under pressure from physical and human | | | | recommendations given. Their aim was to help to go |
| sciences. The motivation of the "new" learners, when | | | | from theory to practice, by working alongside the |
| a modern language (almost always French) was made | | | | Government and various agencies that had to be |
| compulsory in the comprehensive schools, was low, | | | | involved in the process to make it functional, such as |
| with a 60% drop out rate, which had a catastrophic | | | | languages associations and business advisers. They |
| effect on the morale of teachers." (Hawkins, | | | | wanted to contribute to the project by giving their |
| 1996:325). This is the analysis made by Hawkins of | | | | expertise in the upcoming political debates, to |
| the speech delivered by George Perren, director of | | | | promote languages within the community. Although |
| Centre for Information on Language Teaching, in | | | | they wished to play a role in the birth of new |
| 1976 at Kings College in London. | | | | strategies, they also had decided that their |
| In 1985, the Department for Education and | | | | involvement should not exceed a period of two |
| Employment published a document entitled "Better | | | | years, after which it would be up to the Government |
| Schools", which suggested that most students in | | | | to follow through and implement the proposals. |
| secondary schools should receive a course in Modern | | | | |