| The Digital Divide: | | | | generating a digital inequality. A government ICT |
| Electronic Government or E-Government is the | | | | center is more likely to have limited computers raising |
| application of information and communication | | | | the competition of which the less advantaged loses. |
| technologies (ICT) with the intention or purpose of | | | | A person's innovative practice is influenced by the |
| upgrading and presenting government services to | | | | number of people in their network since the more |
| citizens, the public sector, private segment and the | | | | educated and experienced people can influence the |
| non-profit organizations globally. Digital divide is the | | | | person positively thereby encouraging their innovation. |
| terminology used to refer to the gap separating the | | | | The presence of computers at home gives more |
| social classes as concerns their knowledge and | | | | ICT benefits to the rich than the poor. |
| accessibility to modern technology especially as | | | | The methodology used here involves use of the |
| regards the computers and information technologies | | | | planned behavioral model to examine factors that |
| the internet inclusive. The digital divide draws a | | | | affect user acceptance. Several people in the |
| separation line between the wealthy and the poor, | | | | community are supplied with Internet by the |
| developed nations and developing nations and | | | | government on the basis of their social status and a |
| between the blacks and the whites. | | | | survey is conducted and data analyzed indicating the |
| The E-Government and the digital divide are | | | | difference in user acceptance between the groups. |
| essentially interrelated. With the increasing populations | | | | Ulitirian results, availability, attitude, ease of use and |
| and the consequent need for government services | | | | social composition show a heavy effect on the |
| by the public, information technology (IT) is an | | | | results, while the government has no effect. |
| essential tool used to distribute and present services | | | | Digital Inclusiveness by Lam and Lee (2006) is an |
| to people with ease, thereby boosting productivity | | | | article exploring methods of having efficacy in |
| and efficiency. However, the information technology | | | | enabling older adults digital services accessibility. The |
| in the government won't have any significance if | | | | study shows how countries such as the United |
| those who are intended to benefit from it have | | | | States, Japan, U.K. and Singapore implement means in |
| limited or no access to the service or are not able to | | | | which their citizens access computers by providing |
| utilize the service. | | | | training programs to the general public and introducing |
| The first consideration for the implementation of | | | | community wide computer facilities (Lam & Lee, |
| E-Government is making all public offices | | | | 2006). |
| computerized so as to enable them build a capacity | | | | Training provisions on computer services and the |
| for efficient service delivery and yield better | | | | introduction of computer centers in the community |
| governance catalyzed by technology. The second | | | | will guarantee computer access by everyone. Older |
| aspect to consider is the availability of citizen centric | | | | adults comprise of a group of people who may have |
| services by using the digital media. This may include | | | | no interest in using computer services even when |
| establishing interactive government portals. | | | | offered the community computers and trained on |
| Currently, the nations with admirable e-governance | | | | their use. The research focuses on studying the rate |
| schemes include New Zealand, Singapore and Canada. | | | | of willing use of computers by older adults. The study |
| E-Government in the United States was particularly | | | | also helps to determine the perception of the old in |
| facilitated by the 1998 Government Paperwork | | | | creating a digitalized society (Constantine, 2009). |
| Elimination Act as well as by President Clinton's | | | | Questionnaires are used in this survey to make the |
| Memorandum on E-Government on December 17, | | | | targets answer the questions without fear of |
| 1999. The memorandum required that the most | | | | negative information. Lab experiments would provide |
| commonly used 500 forms by the citizens be made | | | | the information on the understanding of computers |
| available online by December 2000. The memorandum | | | | by the old and their interest to learn about the |
| further instructed agencies to formulate a secure | | | | computers (Edward, 2002). A margin of error is likely |
| E-Government infrastructure. | | | | to occur however as is the case of sampled research |
| The world wide digital divide is not diminishing as | | | | (Constantine, 2009). Some interviewees may give |
| quickly in spite of the complacency and | | | | insincere answers in order to please those asking in |
| misconceptions as inferred by researchers Fink, | | | | fear that they would otherwise miss the services. |
| Kenny, Samuelson and Compaine. These researchers | | | | The lab method may appear to the target group as |
| feel that the global digital divide is ending while other | | | | though they are being tested for brightness hence |
| argues that the digital divide never existed. There are | | | | they may provide unreliable information for the |
| also those who believe that there is less importance | | | | future. Selection of the target group should have |
| to intervene on the matter, just as it is in the gap | | | | been based on education and occupation rather than |
| between the poor and the rich. Such perceptions are | | | | just the age (Edward, 2002). The questionnaire |
| deceptive and influential to the interventionist | | | | survey should be aimed at obtaining specific |
| strategy attitude. This indicates that less | | | | information on the interest and usage of computers. |
| consideration is given to the digital divide making | | | | Wireless technologies are provided by municipalities to |
| nations and their citizens miss the advantages of | | | | enhance access to the community including those |
| information and communication technology. | | | | who are physically challenged and those on the |
| According to the A Nation Online: How Americas Are | | | | disadvantaged side of the digital divide. The municipal |
| Expanding Their Use of the Internet (NTIA, 2002) | | | | WiFi is provided at very low costs or free of charge |
| article, the optimistic digital divide researchers in | | | | to the society. This research was done to determine |
| America are portrayed to argue that persons from | | | | the level of accessibility and sensitivity of municipal |
| poor backgrounds were making use of the Internet | | | | wireless systems. The effectiveness of aims in |
| than those from wealthy families between 1998 and | | | | eliminating the digital divide on the basis of disability is |
| 2001. The article shows that Internet and computer | | | | focused to determine how the policies toward the |
| literacy and application are growing much faster | | | | disabled fair and the legal insinuations of municipal WiFi |
| among the poor and marginal groups and the digital | | | | systems. People with disabilities being already |
| divide is narrowing rapidly. The article further argues | | | | affected with discrepancies in income and education, |
| that the digital divide is closing independently just as it | | | | extra marginalization of their communication and |
| is the case with automobiles. | | | | information accessibility brings about huge hindrances |
| According to World Bank researchers Kenny and Fink, | | | | to their accessibility to important information needs, |
| there is likelihood for poor nations to adopt | | | | and communal participation (Baker et al, 2009). |
| information technology much faster than developed | | | | Digital government and its effectiveness in public |
| nations. They argue that the growth rate of | | | | management reform by Asgarkhani (2005) highlights |
| information technology in developing countries is | | | | the usefulness of ICT education particularly on |
| much more likely to expand than in the developed | | | | tertiary sector. The study looks at ways in which |
| nations. Any minor absolute increases in Internet use | | | | tertiary ICT educators develop learner's skill and |
| by the developing countries will be received as | | | | make them ready for job. The ICT skills acquired by |
| phenomenally huge growth rates, a suggestion that | | | | the students are compared with what was required |
| the digital divide will drastically reduce (James, 2008, | | | | by the industry. The skills the students expect to |
| p. 56-57). | | | | learn are consistent with what they are taught. |
| To close the digital divide, developing countries' | | | | There are inconsistencies in their expectations in |
| governments should be actively involved in the | | | | comparison to job market requirements. This study |
| efforts of bridging the gap (The Economist (2005). | | | | cannot be reliable since the results may not be true |
| The digital divide in the United States has notably | | | | with all institutions and all ICT students. |
| fallen. According to a Census Bureau survey, 37% of | | | | According to Baker & Panagopoulos (2003), |
| families in 1997 earning between $10,000 and $15,000 | | | | e-government is still complex in various perspectives |
| annually made use of computers. The number rose | | | | including its design, practical implementation, |
| to 47% by 2001. 81% of families earning over | | | | awareness and effective design of responsive |
| $75,000 annually utilized computers in 1997 and this | | | | policies. With the rapidly rising technological and |
| number rose to 88% by 2001 (Samuelson, 2002). | | | | political implications, variations in the e-government |
| On the basis of historical analogy, Fink and Kenny | | | | procedures are evident. Their research overviews |
| argue that growth rates in computer usage are | | | | examples of various participation related |
| bound to remain higher among the developing nations. | | | | e-government applications focusing on the relationship |
| It is unclear whether these differences in growth | | | | between state e-government projects and essential |
| rates between the developing and developed world | | | | demographic, cultural or economic variables. Population |
| will carry on in the future, equalize, or become the | | | | of a state appears to be associated with the |
| opposite as time goes (James, 2008). Fink and Kenny | | | | existence of e-government applications, very little of |
| base their analogy on past growth rates of | | | | the anticipated relationships appear to function in |
| technology accessibility and diminishing accessibility | | | | incompatible manners based on the dataset used. |
| gaps soon after establishment of new technology. It | | | | Extra research basing on a larger dataset and more |
| is not possible to rely on the Internet, television and | | | | vigorous instrumentation is necessary. |
| telephone technologies to cover technology entirely. | | | | Universal access to ICT would result to a world wide |
| Fink and Kenny use simplistic predicting methodology | | | | community of interaction, business, and learning |
| rather than extrapolating between future rates of | | | | leading to higher living standards and upgraded social |
| growth of Internet accessibility from two distinct | | | | welfare. The digital divide is however a threat to |
| technologies (James, 2008). | | | | these results making most public policy makers |
| The accessibility to the Internet does not contribute | | | | discuss the most effective way to close the gap |
| to the digital divide. Instead, the digital divide is | | | | (Bélanger & Carter, 2009). Most of the |
| influenced by the utilization of the Internet and | | | | research focuses on who has access to ICT and at |
| literacy necessary to make use of the Internet. | | | | times how the ICT is applied by those who access it. |
| Some technologies like mobile phones, telephone, and | | | | Bélanger and Carter examine the affected and the |
| radio do not demand any skills in order to use them, | | | | effects of the digital divide at three levels; the |
| while the Internet requires knowledge of computers, | | | | individual level, organizational level and national level. |
| language skills and technical aptitude (James, 2008). | | | | Gascó (2005) in his article Exploring the |
| Besides, a person has to be able to contextualize the | | | | e-government gap in South America addresses the |
| information availed on the Internet and obtain | | | | underdevelopment of the e-governance in South |
| information meaningful to their specific needs. | | | | America. He feels that the digital divide is prominent in |
| The Economist was authored somehow with an | | | | Latin American nations and that implementation of |
| intention to challenge the beliefs of those who argue | | | | efficient actions is required to improve the |
| that the digital divide is swiftly closing. It is argued | | | | accessibility and utilization of ICT in communal |
| that the poor nations are on the dark side in that as | | | | services and e-governance within the South American |
| the technology advances, the demand for advanced | | | | region. |
| literacy and skills continues to rise, thereby widening | | | | Hampton (2007) in his article Neighborhoods in the |
| the digital divide rather than closing it. | | | | network society: the e-neighbors study examines |
| James (2008) in his article is against the notion that | | | | internet as part of daily neighborhood interactions and |
| digital divide does not exist or is closing up. However, | | | | the contexts in which the use of Internet assists in |
| he lacks quantitative evidence and experimental | | | | the creation of local social ties. Internet and |
| evidence to reinforce his opposition. He deduces that | | | | community researches show that ICT presents new |
| A Nation Online: How Americas Are Expanding Their | | | | chances for social interaction, as well as increasing |
| Use of the Internet (NTIA, 2002) article truth is not | | | | privacy by enclosing people in their closets. The study |
| certain, but the claims generate complacency | | | | focuses on closing the gap between the parochial and |
| towards a digital divide thereby diverting focus from | | | | electronic worlds. Experience in using the Internet |
| the matter. It would have been better for James to | | | | increases the dimension of local social networks and |
| prove the incorrectness of the information rather | | | | email communication with local networks. |
| than just alleging that the information may be true or | | | | Helbig et al (2009) article Understanding the |
| false. He should have noted on the data's reliance on | | | | complexity of Electronic government: Implications |
| information based on America rather than the world | | | | from the digital divide literature has it that |
| at large. | | | | theoretically and empirically, e-government and the |
| James (2008) gets support from Mason and Hacker | | | | digital divide are interrelated. Studies concerning the |
| (2003) in that information technology needs user | | | | e-government and the digital divide carry crucial |
| competency different to radio and television and that | | | | parallels and potential interactions essential in |
| only very few individuals in developing nations have | | | | comprehending e-government initiatives and policies in |
| these skills. Though the digital divide may be fading | | | | a better perspective subsequently for enhancing |
| fast in some countries, it still does exist. Less has | | | | efficient digital schemes. Model and theory |
| been done to determine the impacts of the | | | | developments, understanding users and determinants |
| introduction of Information Communication | | | | of demand are some recommendations inferred from |
| Technology in the third world and more practical | | | | this research. |
| research is necessary so as to realize the needs of | | | | James, (2008) in his article Digital divide complacency: |
| developing nations' inhabitants. James argues that a | | | | misconceptions and dangers discuss the global digital |
| global perspective should be adopted when | | | | divide. The article confronts the perceptions that |
| considering the digital divide and that looking beyond | | | | information technology can be easily equalized with |
| America would be the way out to help others close | | | | the earlier dispersal of consumer durable goods, and |
| the digital divide. | | | | that the divide can be varnished by redefining the |
| The Understanding Digital Inequality article by Keil et | | | | matter, and that the global divide can be examined in |
| al (2008) argues that the general behavioral models | | | | absence of basic knowledge in innovation studies, |
| user approval for the socio economically | | | | technology and development, and the dismissal of |
| underprivileged and socio economically privileged exist | | | | process modernizations. |
| and relate to the digital disparity. In their view, the | | | | The challenges of redressing the digital divide by |
| authors of this article feel the digital divide is the gap | | | | Kvasny & Keil (2006) evaluates the works by |
| separating the advantaged and the disadvantaged in | | | | Atlanta and LaGrange cities in redressing the digital |
| terms of Information and Communication Technology | | | | divide. They analyzed how the target populations and |
| (ICT) and the utilization of information obtained from | | | | service providers responded to the two initiatives, |
| ICT. Being present in many countries, digital inequality | | | | how these responses worked to reproduce the |
| differentiates the developed countries and the | | | | digital divide, and the teaching for future digital divide |
| underdeveloped countries as concerns ICT. | | | | programs. They found a reinforcement of the status |
| Digital inequality is brought about by some socio | | | | quo. However, there lacked mechanisms for |
| economic factors such as the degree or the ability to | | | | advancement. They inferred that Atlanta and |
| obtain education and income. The government's | | | | LaGrange programs could be classified as successful |
| move to present access to technology and creation | | | | since they provided access and basic computer |
| of conditions under which the technology will operate | | | | literacy to people. |
| are crucial. To make the project successful, the | | | | In conclusion, the digital divide still exists in most |
| government must realize the citizen's user | | | | countries, and for there to be an effective |
| acceptance. Understanding Digital Inequality research | | | | e-governance, more efforts in providing the |
| is conducted to determine the significance of the | | | | resources and knowledge to the public as regards |
| citizen's user acceptance of information technology | | | | information technology must be put in place. |
| initiatives offered by the government. | | | | Awareness on the use and the benefits of |
| The methodology used comprises of survey tools for | | | | e-governance should be created in the community. |
| obtaining data from a particular community utilizing | | | | References: |
| the government's Internet project and then analyzing | | | | Asgarkhani, M. (2005). Digital government and its |
| the results. The factors contributing to the difference | | | | effectiveness in public management reform: |
| in ICT application among the groups include the | | | | A local government perspective. Public Management |
| simplicity of use and the confidence, and they carry | | | | Review, 7 (3) 465 – 487. |
| much weight on user acceptance. The theory of | | | | Baker, P., Hanson, J., &Myhill, W.N. (2009). The |
| planned behavior used is applied in the analysis of the | | | | promise of municipal WiFi and failed policiesof inclusion: |
| after-implementation effects of the ICT projects in | | | | The disability divide. Information Polity 12, 47-59. |
| the two groups. | | | | Baker, P. & Panagopoulos, C. (2003). Great |
| Several factors in the model affecting the user | | | | expectations: The promise of digitalgovernmentinthe |
| acceptance either constructively or unconstructively | | | | American states. American Political Science |
| include perceived behaviors, subjective norms and | | | | Association, Philadelphia, 1-21. |
| attitude. Attitude depends on the ulitirian factor which | | | | Bélanger, F. & Carter, L. ( 2009). The impact |
| measures the significance of using ICT and the | | | | of the digital divide on e-government use. |
| hedonic factor that measures the enjoyment derived | | | | Communications of the ACM, 52(4), 132-135. |
| from the use of ICT. Utilitarian results are linked with | | | | Dewan, S. & Riggins, F.J. (2005).The digital divide: |
| the socio benefited whereby ICT is utilized for the | | | | current and future research directions |
| correct reasons, while the socio economically | | | | Journal of the Association for Information Systems, |
| underprivileged employ ICT for entertainment or | | | | 6(12), 298-335. |
| pleasure. This gap emerges because the | | | | Gascó, M. (2005). Exploring the e-government gap in |
| disadvantaged use ICT for pleasure while the | | | | South America. Intl Journal of Public |
| advantaged use ICT to obtain knowledge or for | | | | Administration, 28, 683–701. |
| occupational reasons. | | | | Hammond, A. L. (2004). Digitally empowered |
| The distinction is a product of the social economically | | | | development. Foreign Affairs, 80(2), 96-102. |
| privileged persons being more learned and having ICT | | | | Hampton, K. (2007). Neighborhoods in the network |
| accessibility, giving them a better chance to use the | | | | society: the e-neighbors study Information, |
| technology. Friends spend much time together | | | | Communication & Society, 10(5), 714–748. |
| exchanging information and are thus more likely to | | | | Hawkins, E.T., & Hawkins, K.A. (2003). Bridging |
| influence an individual's innovative behavior as | | | | Latin America's digital divide: governmentpolicies and |
| opposed to the government. | | | | internet access. Journalism & Mass |
| The government can be influential by involving the | | | | communication Quarterly, autumn, 646- |
| community in discussions and training, and thus avail | | | | 665. |
| ICT to the community cheaply thereby benefiting the | | | | Helbig, N. Gil-Garcí, J. R., Ferro, E. (2009, January). |
| two groups. In so doing, the government will lower | | | | Understanding the complexity ofelectronic |
| the digital inequality, and it may use methodical means | | | | government: Implications from the digital divide |
| to promote awareness and interest in the | | | | literature. Government |
| community. This will create a positive relationship to | | | | Information Quarterly, 26(1), 89-97. |
| the subjective standards of the privileged and | | | | Hsieh, P., Rai, A., & Keil, M. (2008). Understanding |
| underprivileged in the society. | | | | digital inequality: comparing continued usebehavioral |
| Confidence being another factor can affect both | | | | models of the socio-economically advantaged and |
| groups constructively and non-constructively. | | | | disadvantaged. MIS |
| Confidence measures the execution of ICT projects | | | | Quarterly, 32(1), 97-126. |
| and a person's behavioral organization and affects | | | | I-Ways (2006). Breaking barriers to e-government. |
| ICT application in the society. Low confidence affects | | | | Digest of Electronic Government Policy and |
| more the socio economically disadvantaged than the | | | | Regulation, 29, 205-217. |
| socio economically advantaged making the | | | | James, J. ( 2008). Digital divide complacency: |
| less-privileged experience difficulties accessing ICT, | | | | misconceptions and dangers. The Information |
| hence the digital divide. The ease or difficulty in using | | | | Society, 24, 54–61. |
| technology affects one's belief and subsequent | | | | Lam, J., & Lee, M. (2006). Digital inclusiveness: |
| control on technology, though the socio economically | | | | Longitudinal study of internet adoption byolder adults. |
| disadvantaged are more affected by this. This is due | | | | Journal of Management Information System, 22(4), |
| to the fact that the socio economically privileged are | | | | 177-206. |
| more educated and thus able to cope with | | | | McNeal, R., Hale, K., & Dotterweich, L. (2008). |
| sophisticated features of the technology. | | | | Citizen-governmentinteraction and the |
| Technology is more theoretical than practical in most | | | | Internet: Expectations and accomplishments in |
| government initiatives. This renders availability, a | | | | contact, quality, and trust. |
| barrier among the socio economically under privileged | | | | |